Modular and regenerative life cycle assessment indicators for sustainable power systems

International sustainability policies and energy-transition strategies are reshaping expectations for power system equipment design and assessment. Beyond conventional engineering performance, requirements increasingly emphasize eco-design, modularity, climate resilience, biodiversity, ecosystem services, human health, and stakeholder engagement. In this context, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a key tool for evaluating power transformers. However, most transformer LCAs remain limited in scope, focusing on economic or environmental indicators within gate-to-gate or cradle-to-grave boundaries, and rarely supporting design decisions that enable circularity or regenerative outcomes across the full life cycle. This study addresses this gap by proposing an extended LCA framework that integrates…